| The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Draws from public domain sources for both its classic philosophical e-texts collection and for portions of some articles. James Fieser, Ph.D., general editor.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: The Academy - Brief article on the development of this ancient school.
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| Active Powers - Brief article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on this term as used in the Scottish "common sense" philosophy.
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| Aenesidemus - Brief article on this thinker from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Anaxagoras - Article on the Greek philosopher responsible for giving philosophy a home at Athens and the first philosopher to introduce a spiritual principle which gives matter life and form.
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| Anaxarchus - Very brief article on this thinker from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Anaximander - Detailed article on this Milesian, by Dirk L. Couprie.
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| Anaximenes - 5th century BCE Greek philosopher of Miletus who regarded 'air' as the primary form of body.
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| Anselm - 11th century English prelate who developed views of atonement and satisfaction which are still held by orthodox theologians.
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| Antisthenes - Article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) - Unsigned biographical essay.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle - Biography and analysis.
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| Augustine - Extensive article on the life and work of the 4th century ecclesiastical author.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Francis Bacon - Detailed introduction to Bacon's life and work includes a look at his role in the scientific community of Elizabethan England.
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| Bakhtin Circle - Article about this school of 20th-century Russian thought, by Craig Brandist from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Focuses heavily on Bakhtin's own work.
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| Cesare Beccaria - A short article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, describing Beccaria's life and teachings on penal theory.
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| Behaviorism - Theory in philosophy of mind which maintains that talk of mental events should be translated into talk about observable behavior.
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| Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) - Entry on Bentham at the Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
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| Berkeley, George - A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge. An important work in the history of empiricism and idealism, and a string influence on David Hume. Full text on-line.
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| Berlin Circle - Group of academics who gathered round Hans Reichenbach in late 1920s and later joined up with the Vienna Circle.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Henry St. John Bolingbroke - Article which discusses his life and philosophy.
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| Joseph Butler - Article by David E. White from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Edward Caird - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article by William Sweet. Reflects on the intellectual aspects of Caird's life.
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| Capital Punishment - The issue of capital punishment involves determining whether the execution of criminals is ever justified.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Rudolf Carnap - His life and work, by Mauro Murzi.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Chinese Room Argument - Article by Larry Hauser, on Searle's well-known thought experiment opposing the possibility of artificial intelligence. The argument and several counterarguments are considered.
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| Chrysippus - Prolific stoic of Soli, and disciple of Cleanthes.
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| Cicero (c. 106-43 B.C.) - Overview of the life and works of Marcus Tullius Cicero, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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| Cleanthes (331-232 BCE) - A brief biography from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Ralph Cudworth - Article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, outlining the intellectual career of this 17th-century English Platonist.
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| Richard Cumberland - Article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, outlining Cumberland's arguments in his chief work, De legibus naturae.
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| Damon - Very brief article on the classic tale of this philosopher and his friend, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Donald Davidson - Entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| English Deism (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy) - Reference on Deism in England.
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| Deism, French - Brief historical survey of the development of Deism in France, as espoused by Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau.
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| Democritus - Article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, summarizing this thinker's life and teachings.
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| Demonax - Philosopher of the second century CE who tried to revive the philosophy of the Cynic School.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Rene Descartes - Entry on Descartes from the Encyclopedia. Includes an assessment of his philosophy.
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| Dewey, John - Leading light of the 20th century American school of thought known as pragmatism.
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| Denis Diderot - Brief biographical article on this leader of the Encyclopedists, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Diogenes Laertius - 3rd century biographer of ancient Greek philosophers.
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| Diogenes of Apollonia - Brief article on this thinker, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Diogenes of Sinope - Biography and analysis.
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| Meister Eckhart (1260-1328) - Brief summary from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Eclecticism - Group of ancient philosophers who sought to reach by selection the highest degree of probability in the search for truth.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | Egoism - Definition of egoism, spotlight on various schools.
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| Emanation - The theory that all derived or secondary things flow from the primary.
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| Empedocles - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article. Summarizes this early Greek thinker's thought and presents what is known about his life.
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| Empiricism, British - 18th century British philosophical movement which maintained that all knowledge comes from experience.
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| Encyclopedists - Short article on the Encyclopedia project, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Epictetus - Brief biography and an extensive discussion of the ideas of Epictetus' philosophy, by Keith H. Seddon.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Epicurus - Encyclopedia entry on Epicurus.
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| University of Tennessee - Definition of Ethics (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy) - Covers metaethics, normative ethics and applied ethics in depth.
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| Euclides - Article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, describing this classical thinker's career.
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| Euthanasia - Contemporary applied ethical issue considering whether it is morally permissible for a third party to end the life of a terminally ill patient who is in intense pain.
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| Evolution - Introduces evolution through the ages, from the ancient Greeks, through Leibniz and Descartes to Darwin and Spencer.
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| James Frederick Ferrier - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on this Scottish thinker.
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| Fichte, Immanuel Hermann - Aimed to secure a philosophical basis for the personality of God. Son of Johann Gottlieb Fichte.
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| Johann Gottlieb Fichte - Biographical information as well as an introduction to the Science of Knowledge.
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| Freud, Sigmund - Lenghty article on the father of psychoanalysis who is generally recognised as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century.
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| Galileo - Italian physicist and astronomer, born 1564.
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| German Idealism (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy) - The term "German Idealism" refers to a phase of intellectual life that had its origin in the Enlightenment as modified by German conditions.
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| Gorgias - Brief article on his life and thought, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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| Greek Philosophy - Brief article outlining the history of Greek philosophy. From the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| William Hamilton - Brief article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, covering this Scottish scholar's life and views.
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| Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann - Brief article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| St. Louis Hegelians - Article by Richard Field in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, detailing the historical development and influence of this American philosophical school.
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| Claude Adrien Helvetius - Brief entry on this French thinker from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Carl Gustav Hempel - Essay with bibliography on this 20th-century thinker's life and ideas, by Mauro Murzi. From the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Heraclitus - 5th century BCE. Presocratic Greek philosopher.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Edward Herbert of Cherbury - Article on his life, career and thought.
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| Hippias - Brief article on this early Sophist, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Hodgson, Shadworth - Follower of Kant, founder of the Aristotelian Society.
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| Humanism - Brief article on Erasmus and the Italian humanist movement.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Logical Positivism - Detailed article by Mauro Murzi, reviewing the development and legacy of this movement.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Edmund Husserl - Article on Husserl, which presents his biography, various strategies for interpreting his phenomenology, and a survey of his major works.
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| Thomas Henry Huxley - Brief article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on Huxley and his thought.
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| Identity Theory - Form of monistic materialism which maintains that mental states and brain activities are identical.
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| Interventionism - Examines the nature and justifications of interfering with another polity or choices made by individuals.
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| Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi - Brief entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on this German writer.
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| Just War Theory - Some of those who have attempted to justify war include Aquinas, Grotius, and Pufendorf.
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| Positivism, Legal - Theory that law is manufactured according to certain social conventions.
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| Leucippus - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article, detailing Leucippus' theory of atoms.
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| Libraries, Ancient Greek and Roman - Describing the public libraries of Ancient Greece, and the fashion for book-collecting in Rome.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: John Locke - Biographical information and an explanation of his major ideas.
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| Peter Lombard (1095-1160) - An article on the scholastic theologian and his most important work, the Sentences. In the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Rudolf Hermann Lotze - Brief entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on this German thinker.
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| Lucretius - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article by David Simpson. Extensive discussion of the life, doctrine, and context of this Roman Epicurean thinker.
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| Machiavelli, Nicolo - Renaissance philosopher who remains controversial for his practical solutions to problems of how to retain political authority.
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| Malebranche, Nicholas - Entry from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Menippus - Concise entry on this ancient writer and his legacy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: John Stuart Mill - Overview of the life and writings of Mill.
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| Moral Luck - Andrew Latus, St. Francis Xavier University, summarizes the discussion between Thomas Nagel and Bernard Williams on the question: Can luck ever make a moral difference?
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| Natural Law - Standards that govern human behavior objectively derived from the nature of human beings.
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| Natural Theology - Used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to describe knowledge of God drawn from nature.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Neoplatonism - Article by Edward Moore focusing on Plotinus, Porphyry and Proclus.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: William of Ockham - Unsigned article which provides an overview of major concepts in Ockham.
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| Origen of Alexandria (185-254 A.D.) - Biography and synopsis of Origen's philosophy and theology.
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| Solipsism - The doctrine of the solipsist is that existence means my existence and that of my mental states.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: William Paley - Short article on this 18th-century religious writer.
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| Parmenides - Article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy which discusses the various divisions of Parmenides' poem On Nature.
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| Peripatetics - Brief article describing this school, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Plotinus - A look at various aspects of Plotinus' Neoplatonic system. Includes extensive suggestions for further reading.
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| Jules Henri Poincaré - Scholarly study of his life and thought by Mauro Murzi. From the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Prodicus - Short article on this leading Sophist.
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| Protagoras - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article by Carol Poster. Deals extensively with what we know about the life, doctrines and influence of this Sophist.
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| Pyrrho - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article. Details the known aspects of Pyrrho's career, and discusses his impact on later thinkers.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Pythagoras - Article which discusses the cosmological and ethical teachings associated with Pythagoras.
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| Rationalism, Continental - 17th century philosophical movement. Rival to British Empiricism.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Hans Reichenbach - A scholarly study of his life, epistemology, and philosophical interpretations of physics. By Mauro Murzi.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Renaissance - Brief article on the transition between middle ages and modernity.
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| Roman Philosophy - Short introduction to Roman philosophy from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Jean Jacques Rousseau - Brief overview of Rousseau's life and works.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Earl of Shaftesbury - Article which reviews Shaftesbury's moral philosophy in some detail.
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| Shpet, Gustav - Leading proponent of Russian transcendental phenomenology.
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| Ancient Greek Skepticism - An article on skepticism in Ancient Greece from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, by Harald Thorsrud of Temple University.
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| Skepticism, Contemporary - Introduction to the current discussion of skepticism.
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| Skepticism, Modern - Review of the modern era in skepticism.
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| Social Contract - View that morality is based on social agreements that serve the interests of those who make the agreement.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Vladimir Solovyov (1853-1900) - Article by Thomas Nemeth. Includes biographical information and extensive discussions of many aspects of Solovyov's thought.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists - Concise article on the historical context of this movement.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Baruch Spinoza - Entry on Spinoza, with biography and main elements of his philosophical thought.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Leslie Stephen - Concise article on his life and teachings.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Stilpo - Concise entry on this famed rhetorician.
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| James Hutchison Stirling - A brief article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy detailing Stirling's intellectual career.
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| Stoicism - Description of the system of ethics, popular in Ancient Greece, which has physics as its foundation.
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| Sublime - Aesthetic value with the suggestion of transcendent vastness or greatness.
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| Supererogation - An action which goes beyond what is morally required.
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| Symposium - Drinking-parties in Ancient Greece where the guests reclined on couches, and were crowned with garlands of flowers.
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| Synderesis - Scholastic philosophy describes this as the principle in moral consciousness which directs an agent to good.
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| Thales of Miletus - Lengthy article by Patricia O'Grady, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Discusses his life, teachings and impact.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Theophrastus - Concise article on this follower of Aristotle.
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| Time - Long article about questions of time discussed throughout the history of philosophy.
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| Timon - Short article on this Skeptic from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Draws on Eusebius and Diogenes Laertius.
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| Tragedy - A term used in aesthetics to describe a situation where elements of pain and pleasure exist simultaneously.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Vienna Circle - Article by Mauro Murzi.
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| Virtue Theory - Entry in the Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
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| Voluntarism - Theory that God or the ultimate nature of reality is conceived as some form of will.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: William Warburton - Concise overview of his life and writings.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Wittgenstein - Entry by Duncan J. Richter outlining Wittgenstein's thought and place in philosophy.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Xenophanes - Short article reviewing what is known of this thinker's career.
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| Xenophon - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Short biography and profile of his literary and historical contributions.
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| Zeno of Elea - Life and work of the Eleatic philosopher, from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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| Hume, David - Enormously influential 18th century Scottish philosopher. Author of Treatise of Human Nature (1739-1740).
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| Aristippus - Article from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on this founder of the Cyrenaic school, by Tim O'Keefe.
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| Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Cyrenaics - Detailed survey of this school of thought, by Tim O'Keefe.
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| Animals and Ethics - Consideration of moral status of non-human animals.
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| Russell's Paradox - Examines self-referential linguistics used to describe properties and sets.
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| Truth - Philosophical theories on the nature of truth, by Bradley Dowden and Norman Swartz.
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| God, Western Concepts of - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on God from Socrates to Nietzsche.
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| Plato - Biography and description of the philosophy of Plato.
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| Stoic Philosophy of Mind - Description of the philosophy of Mind of the Stoics, including the relationship between mind and body, perception, action-theory, and emotion.
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| Rights, Human - A treatment of the origins and development of the theory of human rights, with philosophical analysis, justifications, and criticisms.
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| Hobbes, Thomas - 17th century British philosopher. Author of Leviathan (1651).
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